Introduction to Communication-Nonverbal Behaviors in Public-Discussion Personal Statement

Introduction to Communication-Nonverbal Behaviors in Public-Discussion - Personal Statement Example The intimate zone according to Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman covers the skin areas and approximately 18 inches to the outside (454). Therefore, the fact that the two individuals were in very close proximity is a clear indication they are very closely involved emotionally. Subsequently, I could tell the two individuals were in a happy mood. As they walked past where I was seated, I could hear them chat happily and I could also see occasional smiles on their faces. There is much to learn about nonverbal communication from these two individuals. For example, one can easily tell the feelings of another individual through his or her facial expression (Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman, 452). Smiling is an indication of happiness or contentment. Other than facial expressions, gestures can also help tell the feeling of an individual (Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman, 452). Two people walking as close as possible to one another is a sign of trust and hence there is emotional attachment. In a nutshell, people comm unicate either verbally or through body language. Facial expressions and gestures expresses the true feelings of an

Channels of communication in Multi national organisations

Channels of communication in Multi national organisations Communication plays a major role in the development of any multinational organization. The communication flow is controlled by a hierarchical system of managers making the decisions from higher to lower levels in the hierarchical In this process the generated responses and reports communicate from lower to higher level in the organization. Managers also spend time communicating with their peers. Therefore, the upward and downward of the communication indicates its effective functionality in a lateral direction. Mead (1998) describes a multinational corporation (MNC) as services produced in the one or more countries but established as a head office in one country. Here, the functionality of Communication plays a vital role in any organization, in the multinational corporation, MNC, when compared to any localized company. The communication among these channels plays a unique and major role in a MNC at the same time for any complexity in communication of the MNC requires an effective communication which is a challenging task to accomplish. TESCO Jack Cohen who was a stallholder for selling groceries in London market founded Tesco in 1919. In fact TESCO was formed out of a merger with T.E. The first store was opened in 1929 in Burnt Oak, Edgware in North West London where he bought the tea to sell in the stall. From there Tesco was expanded up to 2,200 stores which include hyper markets and Tesco express outlets across the world to satisfy the needs for every customer. Not only being as a company Tesco also provides different kinds of goods and services such as banking, online shopping and insurance to meet the customer satisfactory results becoming the Britains largest retail industry including in the other three continents and also making a profit margin of up to  £3.4 billion with a 468,000 employee force. Tesco is now planning to make a move into market of non-foods with a goal to take a lead position in Asia and even in Central Europe. The Research Problem A in the fields of organizational strategies and internal communication has been conducted and it seems to be a threat regarding the communication and in theories of MNCs. This research will therefore investigate the channels of communication and communication process of TESCO. In the scenario of practical environment this research will analyse the process of internal and external way of communication and the build the gap between the advantages and disadvantages of Tesco. Aims and Objectives The aim of this research is to investigate and expel the internal and external methods of communication there by focussing on the advantages and disadvantages (barriers), of TESCO.   Objectives To study of the communication process in sTESCO To study of the channels of communication in TESCO To study of the internal and external communications of TESCO To find out the communication barriers in TESCO Literature review In any kind of business environment Communication can be described as an exchange of messages from one person to the other person and giving an acknowledgement of the particular message received is understood and expecting some kind of action as a result. According to Wilbur Schramm (1955), communication is the process of establishing a commonness or oneness of thought between a sender and a receiver. In other words, it helps employees to work towards the same goals, by giving them a similar direction through which effectiveness in communication is achieved and helps to create a base and direction for every activity. Communication process in TESCO The purpose of communication within an organisation such as Tesco would be  to give information to its  public  and employees e.g. to perhaps inform staff of a  future  meeting, or to provide customers with details of a promotion. Also Tesco need to collect information e.g. such as personal details of employees, which would be needed for personnel records, or market research data on sales of products. Communication is needed to keep Tesco running smoothly, Tesco employees need to know what he/she has to do, and do it to the best of their abilitys. For Tesco to have a good reputation to the public they need to have good communication to eliminate errors, manage problems and deal efficiently with customers complaints/queries. Communication can take place internally (through bosses and employees, subordinates, colleagues) or it can take place externally (Customers, Suppliers, Media, Shareholders) In businesses, you will find that the point of communication is to influence something in the business. The message is often an instruction and the response should be that the job is done. Communication process Communication involves four elements: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ A Sender à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ A Message à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ A Receiver à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ A Feedback These four elements are the principals to getting a message across in resulting in effective communication; you will also find that communication goes in all directions Tesco need to communicate with a range of individuals and organisations. Including their customers, their competitors and their suppliers. Good communication in Tesco is essential if it is going to achieve its objectives and to operate effectively. Tesco have a lot of channels of communication internally/externally between their functional areas. Channels of communication in TESCO Tesco being a large company with 729 stores in the U.K, 979 stores nationally, and employing 280 million nationally, means they have to use reliable sources of communication in order to run an efficient business. Channels of communication played a key role in TESCO. It has established various channels, formal, informal verbal, non-verbal oral, written, technological different electronically means to facilitate the transmission of information throughout the organization. Formal Informal Communication Formal communication is when employees communicate through the official channels that have been set by the business, e.g. weekly staff meetings, reports, forms, memos. TESCO would definitely resort to this type f communication a lot, as Tesco is a big company, there would usually be board meetings for the board of directors etc. Formal communication is much more associated with vertical communication; it usually involves a good organised system, which has to work efficiently and quickly. Informal communication is when people within an organisation communicate but not by using the chain of command or the official channels. You will find this type of communication between employees of the same level, and is very much associated with horizontal and diagonal communication. This type of communication is usually voluntary, and helps to build cooperation between staff. This communication would take place a lot between employees in Tesco. Internal and External Communication Internal communication is communication that is shared by people at all levels within a company.  External communication  occurs between parties inside a company and parties outside the company, such as suppliers, customers, and investors. Both internal and external forms of communication include everything from formal e-mail and official reports to face-to-face conversations and casual phone calls. External communication also takes such forms as customer and supplier Web sites, news releases, and advertising Internal communication Channels are used by Tesco Phone/mobile, fax, email, memo, club cards, letters, notices, meetings, reports. External communication channels are used by Tesco Websites, Tesco cards, Vouchers  Telivision advertisements,   Tesco  online  (internet), video conferencing,   forms. Communication is vital to Tesco because then everyone is clear about objectives, there is smooth and accurate communication both within the organisation (internal) and between the organisation and other individuals (external), ideas and views are clearly heard and everyone in the organisation is kept informed of developments and changes. Tesco uses internal and external communication channels effectively. These channels are influence to the company. By using these channels customers satisfaction is good. Advantages and disadvantages (barriers) of communication in Tesco Communication is an extremely important factor in motivating employees. This may be through 1-to-1 discussions with managers, through the company intranet or newsletters or through more formal structures such as appraisals. Line managers hold a daily Team Meeting to update staff on what is happening for the day and to give out Value Awards. These awards can be given from any member of staff to another as a way of saying thank you and celebrating achievements. .The employees would feel good that the have a say in the work thus motivating them to work hard. Good communication would clear up any misunderstandings and jobs would get done well, and on time. Communication would provide the manager with feedback on previous decisions, and because the company would be consistent and organised less problems would transpire and would brighten the image of the organisation.  Ã‚   Advantages Business dealings are made more effective, fast and reliable Information on customers provides information on customer satisfaction. Tesco is made more accessible to customers, with better quality services, and better communication between the customers and Tesco. Communication internally and externally is made more effective. In Tesco greater communication is there between employees, customers and stake holders. there are many advantages using channels of communication in Tesco. Memo is a perfect channel of communication for employees working in the same branch who want to write quick informal messages. Club-cards are advantage of communication because Tesco stores every item that you have bought when your card is swiped; this means that they know whats been selling the most and the least in that certain Tesco. This information is stored in a database and used for many things such as knowing what items to stock extra of, finding ways of promoting the least selling items   Tesco employees would use word of mouth to communicate in their own branch. Its good for passing brief messages and gets straight to the point without any confusion and misunderstanding. Tescos hold a staff meeting every month. Its to discuss problems, new arrangements, new ideas, promotion ideas etc its a very good form of communication because all staff members are together to all give their input   Websites are used to store lots of information for customers, e.g. latest CDs sold in Tescos, wine, store locaters, careers at Tesco, information on a baby and toddler club etc.     Disadvantages/Barriers of the use of channels of communication in Tesco Barriers can get in the way of effective communication. List different barriers to communication Wrong format, Technical breakdown, Receiver unable to understand message, Attitudes towards sender, Wrong channel, No feedback, Poor timing, Use of jargon, Unclear message, Wrong targets. When determining what barriers might exist to channels of communication in a company, there are various potential barriers to the channels of communication in Tesco. Many problems in an organization occur due to inadequate and imperfect communication. Brooke (1996) states that encoding and decoding processes are the main barriers for communication both between individuals and groups, as well as between different levels in the organization. Poor choice of communication channels can also present a barrier to communication. Finally, cultural differences can be a barrier in that they effect the communication between people from different departments in the organization; for example, the RD department has a long time horizon whereas the production department is concerned with achieving daily targets. Communication barriers Tesco is one of the world largest company. It has good communication channels in company because of that they have less disadvantages/barriers is there. Phoning allows Tesco to contact local Tesco branches, which is ideal  for brief messages but could be a problem for Tesco to phone foreign Tescos due to bad frequency, expensive phone bills misunderstood  messages. Texting from mobiles would only be appropriate for your branch or local branches. Fax is ideal for Tesco to send urgent documents and contracts. The  problems of sending a fax is that you would not be sure who would be  reading your fax, you cant send thick booklets and physical barriers such as lack of paper may occur. Tesco use email because its good for them to communicate with local(LAN) and national (WAN)branches because they can send quick messages. But it is disadvantage sometimes the problems are that you cant be sure that your message will be read. TV advertisements are good because of the large amount of viewers. Its a chance for viewers to see new items and promotions. Some times it is a communicating barrier because of the people who might not pay attention to adverts.   Overcoming the barriers Tesco has a one of the largest company in the world. It has good communication channels. But some barriers is there. If communication is bad then managers may not keep in touch with  employees views this could result in frustration which could lead to a strike. Also the outcome of poor communication is bad decisions being made from bad communication and could result in loss of business opportunities, which could lead to lost money and jobs, this could give the company a bad reputation. Because of this Tesco should reduce these barriers. The company should take some actions to overcome communication barriers. The company will reduce the existing barriers and their consequences will facilitate a more effective communication among the employees.. Company should give good frequency to phone calls to contact the local branches. Every fax message must read because of this company will not miss any urgent documents and contracts. Company use the communication channels to their full capacity. Company has come up with diverse ways of communicating by carefully targeting its messages to individuals rather than groups. Company able to sort out issues and control campaigns on key issues that affect its members as well as the public at large. Methodology Research design This report has involved various sources and information which is important for any researcher investigates a multinational organisation. This research explains the communication process and the data necessary for this study. Channels of communication in multi national organisation states a case study approach is particularly appropriate for individual researchers because covers a wide arrange of sources, including facts, figures, news, opinions and theories, and obtaining the highest quality of information. The standards of a good research therefore will include exploring, describing, explaining, and finally evaluating the information (Ruane, 2005). The case study approach plays an important role in research which deals with the communication process, internal and external communication in the research investigation. Whereas a survey is a systematic collection of information from large study groups usually by means of questionnaires administered to samples of units of population The researcher suggests case study method to conduct this research along with an employee survey because case study method is a qualitative method (Gerring, 2007). The researcher would study the particular problem in depth only in a particular multinational organisation and there is no mean to generalise the findings to other organisations or industries. In this research the evaluations are based on qualitative data which may be defined as the research is that involves analysing and interpreting texts and interviews in order to discover meaningful patterns descriptive of a particular phenomenon (Auerbach Silverstein, 2003, p.3) As the research is qualitative the researcher decided that inductive analysis would be constructive because the inductive method allows theory to be constructed from the outline emerging from research data (Henn et al. 2006 cited in Brown 2008, p 191). However, Saunders et al. (2007, p.120) further points out that unlike the deductive method, inductive method is more flexible and uses qualitative data. For this reason the researcher would be using the inductive method. Data collection method It is planned data to collect primary data by web based approach. Researcher used chosen organisation website to find the data. It generally results in a higher response rate and faster than other methods. The official website of TESCO had distributed via email both internally and externally. de Vaus (2002, cited in Saunders et al., 2007) defined questionnaire as a general term that includes all techniques of data collection in which each person is asked to respond to the same set of questions in a predetermined order. The aim of questionnaires are to gather information and views on channels of communication in multinational organisation, therefore the researcher made certain that each question encompassed this area. Each question was to achieve the aim and objectives of this research, and information was to achieve reaching this goals. At the planning stage the researcher made sure that each question revealed information which are needed and not merely wanted. To maximise the success of the questionnaire, the researcher applied various techniques such as giving the questionnaire a meaningful title, keeping questions short and succinct as possible, offering incentives for the return of questionnaire, and providing the prepaid self reply envelopes with each questionnaire. Sampling The selection of the case company was discussed in the introduction of the thesis and, therefore, the focus here is to describe the sample selection within the chosen organization, TESCO. Within a specific case study there are numerous sites to be visited, events or activities to be observed, and documents to be read (Merriam 1998). In our embedded single case study we visited the web sites of organization however; we had to choose the relevant times for visiting websites. Our method for sampling was non-probability Methodology sampling, meaning that we choose specifically which people would be most relevant and interesting for us to interview with regards to the d problems. Within the frames of this non-probability sampling, we conducted a purposeful sampling. Data analysis During the collection of the primary data, we were very systematic in organizing it in order to have a well-structured database, from which we would later conduct an analysis. We also added our own thoughts and observations in the different documents. The way of getting information is that contact to tesco employees and visit the company websites. From the analysis of the empirical data, we were able to present a number of recommendations to the case company. Further, the data analysis provided us with a proper foundation from which we were able to draw conclusions as well as to discover various theoretical implications. Limitations, validity and reliability The proposed research has some limitations which hampered the validity and realiability of the research. In order to carry out this investigation the researcher has contact Tesco employees, read business communicatio books and search information on tesco website. The results of this research are applicable only selected categeory.it is suggested to carry out a different categories if applicable.The other limitation is that the findings and conclusions totally depends on Questionnaire. Respondents are answering the given questions and if the questions are not designed properly to get the required data from employees the researcher will not perform the objectives of the research. Ethical issues of the research report Ethical issues are always a part parcel of a research project. As Best (2001) points out that the data or information collected should remain unbiased and relevant to the research. There are some ethical issues in this particular research. The researcher will attend these issues and give due importance to this aspect of research. The respondents of the questionnaires will be briefed about the purpose of the project and it will help to build the confidence and participation. Also their participation will be voluntary in nature and they will have the right to withdraw from the process at any time. Also the details of respondents and data collected can be against the right of employees. Reliability of data and intellectual property rights when reviewing the literature. Conclusion I therefore conclude that from my research I have gathered that  emailing is the best form of communicating internally and externally of Tescos simply because all Tescos have the internet so all branches can communicate and also compared to other forms of communication email is the most reliable because physical barriers wouldnt occur as  frequently as faxing or texting. Also from an environmental point of view emailing is very friendly because no paper is being used which would prevent deforestation unlike faxing, letters and leaflets. Computers are rapidly evolving and you can easily say that majority of the public have a computer which is a great from a business point of view for Tesco because the public would be receiving plenty of information through their computer such as vouchers which would entice them to shop there.   Like all big companies, Tesco relies on different departments to help it run, which need communication between them all the time, meaning that if one didnt exist, Tesco would not do so well. Tesco has a tall organisational Structure, due to the number of departments within the business. In order to make sure that these departments work perfectly with each other, Tesco relies heavily on Communication as well, from Written to Verbal, Horizontal to Diagonal, and Formal to Informal. TIME AND RESOURCE PLAN FOR THE RESERCH PROJECT steps List of deliverables Resources Duration SEP/DEC 2010 JAN2011 1 Literature review Books, journals, Internet, computer 2 Design the research Computer, internet and books 3 Preparation of Questionnaire Computer books and internet 4 Collecting e-mail addresses and sending the questionnaire Internet, computer 5 Receiving the Answered questionnaire 6 Data analysis Computer 7 Final report preparation Computer 8 Submission

A Streetcar Named Desire - The Importance of Scene 6 Essay -- Streetca

A Street Car Named Desire - The Importance of Scene 6   Ã‚   Scene 6 is a poignant part of 'A Street Car Named Desire' and only contains the characters Mitch and Blanche. The scene begins with the impression that Blanche and Mitch have not enjoyed the evening that they have just spent together at a local carnival. Blanches voice and manner is described as being " the utter exhaustion which only a neurasthenic personality can know." Mitch is described as being "stolid but depressed." Mitch even admits "I'm afraid you haven't gotten much fun out of this evening Blanche." and "I felt all the time that I wasn't giving you much-entertainment."   At this point in the scene the viewer gets the impression that Mitch and Blanche are not compatible and as it continues we get the impression that Blanche and Mitch are very unlikely Bedfellows.    As the scene progresses the likelihood of Blanche and Mitch becoming an item oscillates. The chances begin low and begin to decline but by the end of the scene chances become extremely high. This happens as a result of Blanche's flirtatious character and in the confidence levels Mitch portrays in his conversation.    At the beginning of scene 6 Blanche and Mitch are not presented as being compatible or to have much have any chemistry between them. Blanche is an educated woman with an aristocratic upbringing where as Mitch is uneducated and working class. We can observe how Blanche is flirtatiously playing the 'hard to get game' (e.g. using words such as 'honey') and appears to be very confident and experienced when dealing with men. Mitch on the other hand does not seem so confident or experienced, nervously asking, "Can I - uh-kiss you - goodnight?"      W... ...a significant difference between the two. There is far less physical attraction between Blanche and Mitch and more of a need for companionship, love, and sincerity.   As the play continues and we watch how Stanley slowly destroys Blanche, the question "Does physical brute force, such as that of Stanley, overpower and dominate over the non-physical emotional force such as that of Blanche?" This scene and comparison of the two relationships aids this argument.    Works Cited Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1985. Szeliski, John T. von.   Twentieth Century Interpretations of A Streetcar Named Desire. "Tennessee Williams and the Tragedy of Sensitivity".   Ed.   Jordan Y. Miller.   New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1971. Williams, Tennessee.   A Streetcar Named Desire.   Stuttgart: Phillip Reclam, 1988.      

Bandura’s Social Modeling

Albert Bandura argues that personality is shaped not only by environmental influences on the person, but also by the person’s ability to influence the environment. Social learning states that thinking is an important determinant of behavior.The inclusion of cognitive viewpoints within a behavioral framework has been a relatively recent trend, especially apparent in the work of personality learning theorist J.B. Rotter. Rotter believes that the most important variables in determining personality are the person’s expectations concerning future outcomes and the values of different reinforcements that might occur in a particular situation (Atkinson et al., 2000; Smith et al., 2001).In other words, a person’s behavior depends on what he expects the outcome to any particular action to be and what those outcomes are worth. The likelihood that someone will be aggressive when trying to return a merchandise to a department store would depend then, on that person’s e xpectation about whether or not aggression will work (Atkinson et al., 2000).In Bandura’s viewpoint, human motives (Atkinson et al. 2000; Papalia, 2002).   With this premise, the theory is basically leaning toward the philosophical idea of freedom.   Man is free to chart his course and how he is supposed to fulfill his various needs; i.e. his physiological dimension. In addition, the manner with which he carves himself in a particular niche that satisfies his psychological domains is also based on his own volition.There is no flavor of unconscious thoughts pervading motivation like when the idea of psychological instincts being interpreted within Maslow’s understanding; in contrast to this notion, any individual can basically control their own behavior.This theory believes on the capacities of human nature to achieve what man wants to achieve rather than be held captive by forces within him or in his external world; it is the internal determinants such as we may ch oose skills to lie dormant or latent (Papalia et al., 2002; Smith et al., 2002). For example, i may not imitate aggressive behavior unless i am provoked or/and believe that I am more likely to be rewarded by it than punished for it.Since the premise of this theory hinges on freedom, a person’s characteristics therefore are developed by social influences. According to Bandura and later by personality theorist Rotter, Observational Learning,   accounts for most human learning. It occurs when, as children, in my case for instance, I observe my parents cook, clean, or repair a broken appliance.Biology or heritability is deemphasized, rather the value of being introduced on a particular aspect or several aspects of human experience is basis or the basis for the development of human characteristics. There is evidence that observational learning for simple â€Å"single action† tasks, such as opening the halves of a toy barrel to look at a barrel inside, occurs as early as o ne year (Smith et al., 2001).This theory eventually emphasizes individuality or uniqueness, as it fundamentally illustrates in its assertion that every one has the capability for breakthroughs in circumstances which may be difficult. Man is also capable to learn and communicate about himself and others (Papalia et al., 2002; Smith et al., 2002).Observational learning is not mechanically acquired through reinforcement. We can learn by observation without engaging in overt responses at all. It appears sufficient to pay attention to the behavior of others (Atkinson et al., 2000).Since man is free, unique and has the possibilities to accomplish whatever he is set to do, it is also asserted that man is proactive: he can choose how to respond in any situation and may even extend himself to advance his interests, both positive and negative at whatever goal or in whatever circumstance he may be in (Papalia et al., 2002; Smith et al., 2002; Atkinson et al., 2000).The theory overall is hopefu l and positive in every essence.   Individuals then have all the chances to make their lives fulfilling, impact others on virtues of honesty, charity and generosity, if and when he determines himself to be one.Likewise, he can also influence and negatively affect those that surround him when he chooses to do so. In this perspective then, an individual has high hopes of changing his attitudes and disposition, as well as his physical arrangements in life (Papalia et al., 2002; Smith et al., 2002).

Examine the Role of Expert and Lay Knowledge in Understanding and Managing Risk.

Examine the role of expert and lay knowledge in understanding and managing risk. Contents Page Introduction 3 Risk3-4 What is risk? How do we understand risk? How do we manage risk? Expert Knowledge4-5 What is it? Advantages of expert knowledge Disadvantage of expert knowledge Lay Knowledge5-6 What is it? Advantages of lay knowledge Disadvantages of lay knowledge Beck’s Theory of a Risk society6 Case Study: Allotments the London Borough of Hackney. 7 Who has the knowledge? What are the risks? What is the evidence? Conclusion Case Study: Sun tanning. 8-9 Who has the knowledge? What are the risks?What is the evidence? Conclusion Conclusion9 References10 Introduction. This report will investigate how expert and lay knowledge can be used to understand and manage risk in today's risk society. Using the course materials to explain how different types of knowledge influence how we assess risk. Risk What is risk? Risk is ‘a state in which there is a possibility of known danger o r harm, which if avoided may lead to benefits. ’ (Bromley et al 2009) A risk can be visible, such as an injury sustained by falling off a bicycle, or invisible such as the link between sunbathing and skin cancer.The level of potential harm will affect the degree of risk felt. How do we understand risk? In today's society risk is almost always associated with a negative outcome. So when we are partaking in any activity we automatically compare the risk to the potential benefit. In order to understand risk we have to gain knowledge about the potential harm, this may be either expert or lay knowledge. How do we manage risk? By comparing the potential benefits against the potential harm of an activity we can decide whether to partake in that activity.One example of managing risk involves cycling and how risk is reduced by wearing a helmet. In this situation the benefits of cycling remained the same, it is the risk of sustaining serious head injury that is reduced by wearing a hel met (Carter and Jordan 2009, p59). In order for people to assess risk they will often review two types of knowledge. Expert knowledge – knowledge provided by experts. Lay knowledge – knowledge provided by personal experience. Expert knowledge What is it? Expert knowledge is usually provided by officials in order to inform the general public of the risks that certain activities may pose.There are two main ways of obtaining expert knowledge as discussed by Carter and Jordan (2009), scientific testing is used in the example of the allotments and epidemiology which was used in relation to sunbathing. Both of which have their advantage and disadvantages. Epidemiological findings are often refined and processed into health campaigns and policies. The advantages of expert knowledge are: 1. Experts have access to knowledge and equipment not available to the layperson. 2. They can complete complex scientific testing. 3. They are able to complete large-scale and long-term resear ch such as epidemiology. . Expert assessment of risk can be generalised and can be applied/delivered to specific target groups and the general populace. 5. They are usually employed to assess invisible risks. The disadvantages of expert knowledge are: 1. There are many different theorists and tests available and they often contradict one another making the results difficult for the public to understand. 2. Political agendas can affect project funding and research. 3. Information is given in blanket statements to the general public and can cause anxiety for non-specific groups. 4.Results from scientific tests can be analysed, reviewed and interpreted differently by different people. Lay knowledge What is it? Lay knowledge is an individual’s interpretation of expert knowledge combined or compared to personal experience. (Carter and Jordan 2009, p88) cite Davidson et al who suggest that people interpret and analyse expert knowledge into â€Å"lay knowledge† and they do th is through the medium of humour sometimes referred to as they â€Å"Uncle Norman† or â€Å"the last person† exceptions. For example my uncle Norman smoked 50 cigarettes a day, had fried breakfast every morning and lived until he was 92.The advantages of lay knowledge are: 1. People are empowered to use their own expertise and experiences to evaluate risks. 2. It is in line with the person's own views and religious beliefs. 3. Any assessment is specific to individuals, and their interpretation of expert knowledge. The disadvantages of lay knowledge are: 1. It is subjective and limited to an individual's knowledge or experience. 2. It only looks at risk on an individual basis and does not take into consideration the population as a whole. 3. It is usually based on the exceptional attention to the rule.Beck's theory of a risk society. One prominent sociologist investigating risk is Ulrich Beck, the main points to his theoretical perspectives are: 1. Risks in current socie ty are increasingly invisible. 2. Personal experience is no longer adequate for assessing risk. 3. We rely increasingly on knowledge provided by experts, however, that knowledge is â€Å"open to a social process of definition† (Beck cited in Carter and Jordan, 2009, p. 80). 4. Expert knowledge is usually targeted at the blanket population and can cause anxiety for everyone. . Political considerations are increasingly focusing on risk making epidemiology increasingly popular when devising health campaigns. 6. Experts focusing on long and short-term risks. Case Study: Allotments in the London Borough of Hackney. Who has the knowledge? In this example the knowledge about the risks is provided by experts such as the environment agency and scientists. What are the risks? They have assessed the risks to be: 1)Potential health risks of eating vegetables grown in soils containing poisons such as arsenic and lead. )Potential health risks from their skin contact with soil containing po isons such as arsenic and lead. What evidence is there? 1)The first shows the total levels of poisons in the soil by testing various soil samples and found dangerous levels of arsenic and lead in the soil. 2)The second test at the amount of those poisons that can be absorbed into the human body and found that the levels of poisons that could potentially be absorbed by the body were not high enough to cause concern. However, because there is no standardisation for the second test, the Environment Agency would not accept these findings.Nine samples were sent to different facilities around the world for testing and there was a high degree of variance in the results. Conclusion Because of the two different tests the soil went from being poisonous to safe again (‘A risky world? ’, 2009, track 2). Differences in results from scientific testing make it difficult to know which set if expert knowledge to follow. Case Study: Sun tanning. Who has the knowledge? In this example hea lth experts and holidaymakers have the knowledge to assess the risks of sun tanning. What are the risks? )Health experts advise there is a risk of getting skin cancer through exposure to the sun. 2)Holidaymakers perceive the risk as embarrassment of being seen as a â€Å"peelie wally† when they are on the holidays. What evidence is there? Organisations such as Cancer research UK have taken evidence from epidemiological studies that link overexposure to the sun to skin cancer. However, (Carter and Jordan 2009 p 81) show other scientific research that says lack of sunlight contributes to mood disorders such as SADS, and lack of vitamins D causes illnesses and diseases such as osteomalacia, arthritis and multiple sclerosis. http://www. longevity. about. com/od/researchandmedicine/a/vitamin_d. htm accessed on 11July 2012) Evidence from focus groups urged holidaymakers indicates that they are fully aware of the expert knowledge when assessing risk in relation to sun tanning they a re more likely to be influenced by lay knowledge. One interviewee states with the tan â€Å"Your skin clears up and you look and feel healthier†¦ † (Carter and Jordan 2009 p 77) Conclusion. Therefore in this case study the holidaymakers were comparing their own mbarrassment of going on holiday and being a â€Å"peelie wally† and the benefits of getting a tan and feeling healthier and looking better, with the health advice experts have given about sun tanning causes skin cancer. Conclusion. It is apparent in today’s society risks are increasingly invisible so we rely more on expert knowledge. The two case studies have shown that expert knowledge is often contradictory and there are many differing opinions on how best to obtain evidence in order to assess risk. Because of this people will use lay knowledge to assist them is assessing risk.Lay knowledge is also influential if a person has had experience of harm caused by the risk then they will be more cautiou s about partaking in that activity. So it could be deemed that expert knowledge and lay knowledge are more often than not in direct contrast with one another. References. ‘A risky world? ’ (2009) Exploring Social Lives [Audio CD 1], Milton Keynes, The Open University. Bromley, S. , Jeffries, E. , Meegan, J. and Staples, M. (2009) Learning Companion 3, Introducing the social sciences, Milton Keynes, The Open University. Carter, S. nd Jordan, T. (2009) ‘Living with risk and risky living’, in Bromley, S. , Clarke, J. , Hinchliffe, S. , and Taylor, S,. (eds) Exploring Social Lives, Milton Keynes, The Open University. http://www. longevity. about. com/od/researchandmedicine/a/vitamin_d. htm accessed on 11July 2012 Word count: 1368 Self-Reflection. I am still struggling to stick to my study schedule but I found this TMA much easier than the previous ones because it was not an essay. The shorter more concise paragraphs and bullet point are easier for me to link be cause of my dyslexia.